Raymond, author of The New Hacker's Dictionary, advocates that members of the computer underground should be called crackers. These classifications are also used to exclude specific groups with whom they do not agree.Įric S. Subgroups of the computer underground with different attitudes and motives use different terms to demarcate themselves from each other. Accordingly, the term bears strong connotations that are favorable or pejorative, depending on the context. They operate under a code, which acknowledges that breaking into other people's computers is bad, but that discovering and exploiting security mechanisms and breaking into computers is still an interesting activity that can be done ethically and legally. White hats are becoming a necessary part of the information security field. White hat is the name given to ethical computer hackers, who utilize hacking in a helpful way. Nevertheless, parts of the subculture see their aim in correcting security problems and use the word in a positive sense. Hackers can include someone who endeavors to strengthen security mechanisms by exploring their weaknesses and also those who seek to access secure, unauthorized information despite security measures. In computer security, a hacker is someone who focuses on security mechanisms of computer and network systems. The popularity of Stoll's book The Cuckoo's Egg, published one year later, further entrenched the term in the public's consciousness. of the so-called Morris worm provoked the popular media to spread this usage. Later that year, the release by Robert Tappan Morris, Jr. Use of the term hacker meaning computer criminal was also advanced by the title "Stalking the Wily Hacker", an article by Clifford Stoll in the May 1988 issue of the Communications of the ACM. These moral conflicts are expressed in The Mentor's " The Hacker Manifesto", published 1986 in Phrack. As a result of these laws against computer criminality, white hat, grey hat and black hat hackers try to distinguish themselves from each other, depending on the legality of their activities. House of Representatives on September 26, 1983, about the dangers of computer hacking, and six bills concerning computer crime were introduced in the House that year. Pressured by media coverage, congressman Dan Glickman called for an investigation and began work on new laws against computer hacking. The Newsweek article appears to be the first use of the word hacker by the mainstream media in the pejorative sense. The case quickly grew media attention, and 17-year-old Neal Patrick emerged as the spokesman for the gang, including a cover story in Newsweek entitled "Beware: Hackers at play", with Patrick's photograph on the cover. This concern became real when, in the same year, a gang of teenage hackers in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, known as The 414s, broke into computer systems throughout the United States and Canada, including those of Los Alamos National Laboratory, Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center and Security Pacific Bank. However, the release of the film WarGames that year, featuring a computer intrusion into NORAD, raised the public belief that computer security hackers (especially teenagers) could be a threat to national security. By 1983, hacking in the sense of breaking computer security had already been in use as computer jargon, but there was no public awareness about such activities. In the 1982 film Tron, Kevin Flynn ( Jeff Bridges) describes his intentions to break into ENCOM's computer system, saying "I've been doing a little hacking here". It was an excerpt from a Stanford Bulletin Board discussion on the addictive nature of computer use. In 1980, an article in the August issue of Psychology Today (with commentary by Philip Zimbardo) used the term "hacker" in its title: "The Hacker Papers". It is implicated with 2600: The Hacker Quarterly and the alt.2600 newsgroup. It initially developed in the context of phreaking during the 1960s and the microcomputer BBS scene of the 1980s. The subculture around such hackers is termed network hacker subculture, hacker scene, or computer underground. Bruce Sterling, author of The Hacker Crackdown Birth of subculture and entering mainstream: 1960's-1980's
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